Storytelling as an Instructional Strategy

PIDP 3250

“Storytelling may be the oldest form of education.” – Sal. S. Buffo

What was the last story you heard? What made it interesting? What captured your attention? How did you relate to it?

Interestingly, throughout my academic career I have read numerous books and listened to numerous lectures, yet my grandmother’s traditional stories I will never forget! And now my children ask for stories, real-life stories, of when they were little, of things they can’t remember and of course the most common request is of instances that were humorous! It is a great opportunity to capture attention, relate emotions as well as a great teaching opportunity.

It is quite intriguing to analyze the implications of storytelling from a Scientific perspective. Learners are  not only passively listening, they become engaged, and numerous areas of the brain can be activated simultaneously. The left side of the brain that focuses on logic and reason will relate to the plot of the story whereas the right side of the brain that focuses on creativity and emotion will relate to the creative or emotional aspects of the story and will relate the story to the learner’s life. The learner then assumes a ready to learn state of mind thus providing a great learning opportunity. Some may go as far as saying that storytelling is the only means to “plant” ideas in the minds of learners.

As a result, it is key to be aware of the audience. The learners have an opportunity to become more attentive, to form a connection with the story teller and to share their experiences or personal stories in a follow up discussion.

What then makes an effective story?

A great story attracts attention. It has an aspect that sparks interest. Stories do not have to be long or complex, in fact, a short simple story can have a greater impact since the brain can recognize unnecessary words and by-pass them. A great story is relatable – it can relate to the learners, on an emotional level, and can have a significant impact as learners will engage in “role-taking” with the central character and will apply this role taking to their current life thus possibly resulting in changes in behaviour. A great story also has a purpose, whether it has a moral lesson, whether it has an emotional connection to relay, whether it is meant to be humorous to lighten the mood and prepare the students for the lecture, it has a purpose determined by the story teller and aligned in a thoughtful manner with the audience. I look forward to using this tool of storytelling in my future courses. I plan to use it as a motivational tool, to relay my personal struggles as an immigrant and how I overcame them in order to pursue an education and life in Canada, and also as an instructional strategy when introducing new concepts. I would like to use real life stories where the new concepts are incorporated to show the connection to real-life, to illustrate the immediate application of knowledge and present the students with the “need to know” in a humorous, entertaining and captivating storytelling method.

As a result, I believe storytelling can be extremely beneficial in all programs, yet specifically within Nursing, where there are numerous, continuous real-life learning experiences. Although this can be the case in all disciplines, and storytelling can be adapted to even higher order disciplines such as organic chemistry. A humorous story that captivates can made the ordeal of a complex lecture in organic chemistry much more pleasing, at least in part and can serve to make a connection to the professor. Looking back in my undergraduate years, numerous Art courses have made use of storytelling, yet very few Science courses. I would hope to see a significant increase of the use of this effective technique in Science academia throughout the years. 

Metacognition

PIDP 3250

What is metacognition?  Metacognition is a term coined by developmental psychologist John Flavell (1979) and it essentially means “Thinking about your own thinking”. It requires the analysis of individualized effective problem-solving and learning strategies. It involves the identification of learning gaps and the identification of proper learning techniques required to fill those learning gaps. There are two aspects 1)knowledge of cognition and 2) regulation of cognition. One has to be aware of the thinking process and how to control it. Here is a link to a great video on the subject:

The question then arises how do we identify our thought process and the gaps and determine effective strategies? One way is to analyze our study skills, be aware of our memory capabilities, be aware of our procedural and strategic knowledge. All adult learners are capable of using metacognition on a daily basis in our self-directed learning process and as part of our self-assessment. The second aspect, control or regulation, essentially covers the implementation of proper strategies that can enhance our learning. To illustrate, in Mathematics, in order to tackle a word problem, I immediately draw diagrams to create an association between written english and math so that I can effectively see the math strategies. Other effective strategies are to teach others, be a part of discussion groups, create concept maps or diagrams. It is also important to control our behaviour as a result of metacognition, employing strategies that we know are effective personally. Attempting to behave in a manner in which someone understands a concept, runs the risk of deep conceptual understanding and may result in route memorization, which upon a change in environment will entirely destroy the concept base.

Using metacognition in adult education is highly important. I believe adults need to be made aware of this concept at the start of a term or course, so that they may strategically plan how to tackle a new learning concept or task, monitor their comprehension and evaluate their understanding in the end. This is part of the self-directed learning process and it all involves metacognitive skills. Individuals that posses high metacognitive skills can identify their strengths, weaknesses and learning blocks and can implement strategies to ensure success. They are aware of the factual, contextual and methodological knowledge.

Metacognition involves reflective practice. A method used in the Upgrading Mathematics Class which I tutor is the daily Review and Reflect Journal. It provides students an opportunity to identify the concepts they tackled that day and which were easy, difficult or confusing. It helps them pinpoint to the strategies they used in their learning thus far and suggest means of improvement. This also helps to improve their writing and computer skills. Although these reflections are guided, it is an important stepping stone for students to further improve upon and engage in critical thinking skills.

One other aspect is confirmation bias. Confirmation bias refers to one seeking out knowledge that confirms their previous beliefs while disregarding knowledge or facts that may contradict it. It means we tend to favour information that confirms our own preconceptions whether that information is true or not. It is an area I continually seek to improve in, and I thought this illustration is humorously on point!

Motivation

PIDP 3250

“Motivation is the portal to engagement” (Barkley, 2010, p.15). This quote conveys the necessity of dissecting motivation in order to comprehend its impact in learner engagement. As a result, what exactly is motivation? It can be described as the enthusiasm and degree of attention and effort invested in the learning process (Barkley, 2010). Behaviorist models suggest motivation can be externally adjusted via reinforcement and punishment, however, cognitive models rely on needs models, such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, starting with the fundamental physiological needs such as safety and security and progressing to self-esteem and self-actualization (Feinman, 1975). Goal theories, on the other hand, focus on performance goals relating to reputation and self-perception, learning goals relating to learning the task and concepts taught, and even work-avoidant goals relating to a challenge refusal and a minimal time and effort investment (Barkley, 2010). Intrinsic motivation theory combines both needs and goals models and emphasizes autonomy, competence and relatedness. The current model portrayed in the textbook is a product equation of expectancy and value. Expectancy relates to the self- perception that learners have in the degree to which they can successfully complete a task, and value relates to the degree to which they value its opportunity and reward. It is interesting to note the relationship between the two, as one cannot exist without the other to yield motivation.

Further analysis of motivation leads to the power load margin (PLM) formula by McClusky (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). Load referring to important factors in the adult learner’s life such as family commitments, work responsibilities and goals. Power referring to enabling factors such as physical health, financial stability, social support and coping skills. Margin is as a result the relationship, analogous to a mathematical equation P/L=M. This further reveals the complexity of intrinsic motivation, as it can increase and decrease due to a Power surplus or Load surplus respectively. The implications are most visible in the expectancy area, as a learner with insufficient coping skills may have an altered self-perception in their capabilities, resulting in a decreased confidence. As a result, although the learner may value the task, the decrease in confidence results in dissembling, where excuses, difficulty denial and even knowledge understanding pretences ensue. These learners can be overstrivers, where their lack of confidence is high yet as they fear exposure, they pretend and exert extraneous effort to ensure success and protect the ego (Barkley, 2010). Expectancy is thus crucial, where learners need to have an accurate self-perception of their ability to succeed at the task at hand. Let us move to the implications of value, the importance of the need to know as pointed by Tough, as adults desire immediate knowledge application (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). A learner with high success expectancy, that fails to either see the relevance, value or practical application of the task, may engage in evading where only the minimal requirements are completed without engagement. A learner with low value attribution and low success expectancy will reject the task at hand with resentment and anger and will reinforce negative self-perceptions. These are failure-accepting learners, that have disengaged from the learning process. Thus both expectancy and value work together, coherently, to create the product of engagement. A high success expectancy and high value attribution will result in engaged learners eager to grasp new insights. These are success- oriented learners who enjoy learning for the sake of learning. Now the question naturally arises in regard to the implications relating to the classroom environment that will increase motivation and result in deep engagement. An environment where goals are clearly established and compatible, feedback is relevant, continuous and immediate and tasks are sufficiently challenging (Barkley, 2010). Moreover, the environment should consist of a cooperative and collaborative learning community, aimed at promoting learning goals, with minimal pressures for performance goals, and no evident fear of embarrassment or failure.

Let us examine the means of how to create an environment for increased intrinsic motivation, high expectancy and high value, in order to maximize student engagement. I propose starting with clear, concise goals, yet the mode of delivery is crucial. A handout will most likely only be read by a certain percentile of learners, some of which may need clarification. I suggest an in class out-loud reading of the learning outcomes and goals. Learners not only have the ability to ask questions, they also have the ability to establish a sense of connection to their peers, as each learner takes a turn in reading a course goal. A positive environment is further accentuated where there is no fear of embarrassment, as the educator reinforces that throughout this activity, and confidence and self-perception increases. The educator can purposefully make a mistake in reading the initial course goal, to allow the students to correct her, as she models how easily mistakes can occur and how there is no anxiety, fear or sarcasm elicited as a result. Not only did this activity increase expectancy, it also increased the tendency towards learning goals as opposed to performance goals, and it increased the “flow” or deep engagement of the class.

Furthermore, to increase the value of the task or concept, I propose a real-life context analogy, where learners are enlightened of how they can use the material beyond the lecture hall, with immediate application in a real-life context. These analogies can be presented or brain stormed in groups, depending on the level of content comprehension. Feedback is another crucial component of increasing engagement, and an effective feedback strategy I currently see with my mathematics students that I tutor, is the use of guided reflections journals. At the end of each class, the students answer four questions in regards to the concepts covered, their understanding, their difficulties as well as their reflection on their learning process. It allows for an additional educator/student interaction, as these journals are read after class and the educator response can be accessed via an online course. Technological advances allow for immediate feedback online in courses that are technologically enhanced, and its immediacy allows learners to better prepare and become more self-aware, more motivated for the following class. This is particularly useful for learners experiencing anxiety, as they may not seek the help of the educator or even admit to having anxiety. The private, confidential, reflective journal allows these students to voice their concerns, without fear of embarrassment and it allows the educator to make use of alternate techniques specifically for the student. A concrete example is the use of practice self-marking exams, for those with exam anxiety. Moving to the last aspect of sufficiently challenging tasks, as supported by Vygotzky’s zone of proximal development (Barklay, 2010), I suggest both problem-based and task-centered learning. Case studies are an excellent example, where the learner is autonomous and self-directed, thus increasing expectancy and value, as there are no constraints and applicability to a real-life problem is evident, as fitting with andragogical principles (Merriam & Bierema). Cognitive autonomy support can radically influence intrinsic motivation and student engagement as the learners diverge from performance goals and start toward knowledge insight, problem solving, critical thinking and evolving in their learning process. As a result, I am certain there are numerous other equally effective strategies to increase motivation and student engagement, however one aspect one should not dismiss are the fundamental needs. Encouraging students to lead a healthy lifestyle, get sufficient sleep or even allow them an opportunity for a five minute walking/water break is also quite important. I look forward to implementing all of the discussed strategies in my teaching career in order to increase motivation and learner engagement.

Self Directed Learning

PIDP 3250

The discussion of SDL in the PIDP 3250 Forum last week, really allowed me to ponder more upon the implications of SDL in adult education. Let us first analyze some relevant terminology.

The term andragogy (Tough, 1985), was previously widely used in Europe, to refer to the art and science of adult learning, encompassing the knowledge base and technology unique to the previously neglected species of the adult learner (Merriam & Bierema, 2014) and was adopted by psychologist Malcolm Knowles and introduced to American professional literature. Knowles sustained that the ultimate educational goal is the empowerment of the individual through lifelong learning (Smith, 2002). Knowles recognized the adult learner as having increased maturity, a self-concept and motivation and thus taking the role of a proactive learner, situating the process of SDL as a hallmark of andragogy, deeply rooted in the humanistic learning theory which values the self and its autonomy.

Pedagogy, on the other hand, which means “to lead the child”, focuses on the learner as dependent, subject-centered, teacher-centered and applications of the knowledge can be postponed to the near or distant future. This is evident in the K-12 educational system, however, I do believe students should be made aware of the implications of the content they are learning, as to understand that there is applicability to real-life situations beyond the classroom.

Heutagogy, a term coined by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon of Southern Cross University in Australia, is also called self-determined learning. It revolutionizes the role of the teacher as facilitator and emphasizes learner directed learning.

Techno-heutagogy, refers to the science and art of creating technology-enhanced learner directed learning environments. This is especially important as technology is rapidly advancing. The concepts of the flipped classrooms, technology enhanced classrooms or online courses all make use of technology to facilitate learning. The use of blogs provide interaction with educated individuals around the globe and thus serve to enhance learning. Discussion forums are a great tool to further increase interaction and create a collaborative learning community.

Peeragogy, refers to a collection of techniques for collaborative learning and work. With increasing access to free communication platforms, groups of individuals can learn together hence peer learning.

Cybergogy, is the combination of fundamentals of both pedagogy and andragogy to arrive at a new approach to learning. Cybergogy focuses on facilitating and technologically enabling learner-centered autonomous and collaborative learning, in the virtual environment. Awareness that strategies used for face-to-face learning may not be the same in a virtual environment is an essential aspect of cybergogy. The image below represents factors that will influence an online learning environment.

As a result of the importance of SDL, Knowles delineated a six- step process in the facilitation of SDL commencing with “climate setting” (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p.63). Establishing mutual respect and support is essential by diminishing fear-based barriers, which can lead to appropriate diagnosis of learning needs resulting in the formulation of suitable and individualized learning goals. The learner then selects resource material and implements pertinent learning strategies leading to the final step, the self-evaluation of the outcome (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). This systematic approach is of crucial importance and thus SDL has since evolved into a “pillar” of adult learning theory (Merriam, 2001). Contributing to this evolution were Costa and Kallick, suggesting the incorporation of self-management, self- monitoring and self-modifying as a means of assessment (Merriam & Bierema, 2014).

This has revolutionized role of the learner, placing him at the centre of the learning, proactive and engaged, autonomous in its decisions, capable of determining its own learning goals and directing its learning. The learner is also viewed as capable of self-managing, self-monitoring and self-modifying during its own learning assessment.

This also revolutionized the role of the instructor, whereby in the learner- centered model the educator takes the role of a facilitator as opposed to a content expert (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). The facilitator is then responsible for creating a non threatening atmosphere of mutual trust and respect, facilitating the SDL process, acting as a guide, being inclusive and understanding of the uniqueness and individuality of the learner and its needs. Thus, the complexity of the  educator/learner dynamic reaches new heights as the educator can fluctuate between an expert, motivator, facilitator or delegator based on the respective stage and need of the learner, be it dependent, interested, involved or entirely self-directed (Grow, 1994), as pictured below.

Now let us address more terminology, noting differences.

Self Directed Learner – A learner that takes ownership of the learning, formulating learning goals based on the identification of knowledge gaps. The learner determines the How and What to learn and Why.

Self Regulated Learner –  A learner that engages in self-management and addresses key questions such as Where and How often. This aspect is crucial as effective time management can contribute greatly to the success of adult learners.

Self Guided Learner – A learner that can identify its current knowledge base and seeks an extension through various methods such as mentorship and problem-based or experiential learning.

Another important aspect of the SDL process is self-assessment. Let us begin by differentiating between evaluation and assessment. Assessment provides the opportunity for feedback, to the students for further improvement and clarification as well as to the educator, allowing the opportunity for teaching adjustments to better meet the needs of the learners. Evaluation, on the other hand, is more summative, required by educational institutions and driven by accountability.

For those learners unfamiliar with self-assessment, written guided reflection journals are a great tool in helping these learners develop the necessary skills for appropriate self-assessments. Reflective, critically thinking learners develop as a result of self-assessment, which is why I believe it to be such an important aspect of adult education, along with the SDL process itself!

This brings up the self-evaluation process as well, as within andragogical assumptions, adult are capable of self-evaluating their own learning. Although evaluation is summative, and the purpose is not for improvement or growth as it would be for an assessment, the process of self-evaluation can yield a learning opportunity. During the self-evaluation process, the learner is given an opportunity to determine their level of knowledge, this providing insight also into the areas in need of development and improvement. Thus, the learner constructs relevant insights and connections to the learning content and the learning process itself. The self-evaluation can illuminate in regard to areas of limited knowledge and can provide pathways for enhanced learning. As a result, the self-evaluation is the collection, analysis and exchange of data in regard to individual educational processes and can in itself be an opportunity for learning.

In conclusion, the importance of SDL within adult education is evident as “You can’t really teach adults, adults have to decide to learn” – Bill Pelz. I associate myself with the andragogical model, as I value autonomy and self-directed learning and realize the rich reservoir of experience that adult learners have. I believe in intrinsic motivation and active learning, that are part of the engagement double helix (Barkley, 2010) which is a significant aspect of adragogy. The immediacy of knowledge application along with the necessity for self-direction and active inquiry are all important aspects to consider, in my opinion. However, I also firmly believe in incorporating techno-heutagogy as well as peeragogy as great learning can take place by collaboration, as evident in the discussion forums! The establishment of a learning community, in a positive environment, can have wonderful effects on increasing intrinsic motivation and promoting self-directed learning and peer-learning. There is so much to discover, to learn, it only takes the decision to want to make that step!

Engagement and Active Learning

PIDP 3250

What is Active Learning? 

The above image portrays in a very simplistic yet effective way the difference between active versus passive learning. The traditional behaviouristic teaching methods of lecture delivery in large scale lecture halls where students are presented with information both visually and verbally largely comprises the passive learning stage. In order to fall forward to the active learning stage, students should participate or engage, both verbally and in written form and they should have the opportunity to explore, examine and question scenarios or cases as well as engage in “hands-on” problem-based learning.

As a result, it is no surprise that active learning comprises one part of the double helix model of engagement and is essential to adult learning. It refers to the mind being actively engaged via various modes of instruction such as cooperative and collaborative learning, experiential learning, problem-based and inquiry-based learning (Barkley, 2010).

Let us begin by examining neuroscience. The brain consists of 100 billion neurons. Each neuron consists of a cell body, to which are connected dendrites and an axon. The presynaptic terminal connects to the dendrite of another neuron allowing for neural network creation. Information is received through the dendrites and is sent through the axon, which is insulated by a myelin sheath which serves to hasten signal transmission. Neurotransmitters are fired across the synapse to be received by the dendrites of another neuron which continues the process. The neural network works analogous to muscle contraction and formation, the more the network is used (stimulated), the more the connections are strengthened, the more we “learn”. The less these networks are used, the connections start to decay and we “forget” (Barkley, 2010). The adult learner has significant implications to neuroscience and active learning, as it already has a vast array of neural networks based on previous learning and experience. Thus in terms of processing new information, the brain will attempt to either assimilate it, where it fits in with previous networks or accommodate it, where re-structuring is necessary as the new information challenges the existing one. With increasing age, of course, the brain begins to lose neurons at a rapid rate. However, there is evidence that neurogenesis continues in one part of the brain in adulthood, the hippocampus, an area associated with learning and memory.

As a result, this sustains the view that we are designed for lifelong learning and adaptation to new situations and experiences. Thus the concept of lifelong learning can guide policy, research as well as learning programs. The knowledge society today has replaced the industrial society, where knowledge and education are most valuable as opposed to the industrial society where labour and machines were of greatest value, and knowledge is a central driving force for economics as well as personal and global prosperity (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). The complexity associated with lifelong learning is evident as there is a “life wide” (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p.20) dimension, where the formal, informal and non-formal learning settings are interconnected. Although adult learners will often overlook an informal setting, this can be, however, the setting where significant learning can take place. Moreover, a “life deep” (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p.20) dimension is also added, which incorporates moral, ethical and social aspects that are all essential to human expression and which shape character as well as drive social responsibility.

Let us continue by also examining cognitive psychology, which defines a “schema” as a cognitive structure comprised of facts, associations and ideas organized in a manner in which it creates a meaningful system or concept. The implications are that new information needs to have constructed meaning in association with prior existing schemas. This is in accordance to constructivist learning theories, where learning is defined as constructing meaning from experience (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). Memory also plays an important role. There are two types, short and long term memory. Short term memory is categorized by transient neural networks whereas long term memory networks have been significantly altered by permanent cellular changes initiated by meaning. If information can be constructed to have meaning, retention is drastically improved.

These aspects naturally bring rise to the question of the role of the educator in promoting active learning. According to both neuroscience and cognitive psychology, adults need to use neural networks to establish strong connections and the most effective way is to be engaged. Adults are not viewed as empty vessels to be filled, this does not strengthen prior neural connections and does not allow for the construction of meaning. To increase associations, one must have a prior network to associate with, thus the moral is that the more we learn, the better we can continue to learn. Educators thus cannot transfer knowledge, they can facilitate the acquisition of knowledge by the learner. As a result, educators can act as facilitators, motivators, providers of opportunities for experiential and problem-based learning and as a rich resource for student driven inquiry. One strategy to increase active learning is essential questioning. Essential questions are key in promoting active learning and they serve to instill the desire of pursuing inquiry which in turn brings the willingness to learn content as a result. (McTighe & Wiggins, 2013). Other strategies can include and are by no means limited to: case studies, experimental designs, media presentations, posters, collaborative group discussions, portfolio composition and sharing, blog creation, field trips, task centres and the creation of a learning community. 

One interesting aspect to note on associations, is the emotional impact. I have had the privilege of tutoring students that had severe math anxiety due to their previous learning experiences. With proper guidance, encouragement, and the exploration of the growth mindset (Smilkstein, 2011) and Khan academy videos, I was able to connect positive emotions with their mathematics learning, however, this process was time consuming and it is hard to say whether the math anxiety completely disappeared or was merely reduced.